Ottoman Type & Greek Epigraphy

Ottoman Type & Greek Epigraphy

Ottoman Type & Greek Epigraphy

Ottoman Type & Greek Epigraphy

Ottoman Type & Greek Epigraphy

My research traces the history of type and printing in the Ottoman Empire and the wider region, with a focus on the letterforms and the craftspeople who made them. It began with a simple question: why is there so little trace of original type design in Turkey after the 1928 script reform?

My research traces the history of type and printing in the Ottoman Empire and the wider region, with a focus on the letterforms and the craftspeople who made them. It began with a simple question: why is there so little trace of original type design in Turkey after the 1928 script reform?

My research traces the history of type and printing in the Ottoman Empire and the wider region, with a focus on the letterforms and the craftspeople who made them. It began with a simple question: why is there so little trace of original type design in Turkey after the 1928 script reform?

My research traces the history of type and printing in the Ottoman Empire and the wider region, with a focus on the letterforms and the craftspeople who made them. It began with a simple question: why is there so little trace of original type design in Turkey after the 1928 script reform?

My research traces the history of type and printing in the Ottoman Empire and the wider region, with a focus on the letterforms and the craftspeople who made them. It began with a simple question: why is there so little trace of original type design in Turkey after the 1928 script reform?

A question from the script reform

A question from the script reform

A question from the
script reform

A question from the script reform

A question from the script reform

When the Republic of Turkey replaced the Arabic script with the Latin alphabet in 1928, Latin letters were nothing new to Istanbul. Since the mid-19th century they had appeared on shop signs, on ferry and tram stations, and in Turkish–French publications. Yet Latin fonts were imported from French and German foundries both before and after the reform, and local foundries only re-cast them from European matrices. Original Latin type design from early 20th-century Turkey remains undocumented. To understand what came before the reform, I learned Ottoman Turkish and turned to the Arabic-script typefaces of the Ottoman printing press.

When the Republic of Turkey replaced the Arabic script with the Latin alphabet in 1928, Latin letters were nothing new to Istanbul. Since the mid-19th century they had appeared on shop signs, on ferry and tram stations, and in Turkish–French publications. Yet Latin fonts were imported from French and German foundries both before and after the reform, and local foundries only re-cast them from European matrices. Original Latin type design from early 20th-century Turkey remains undocumented. To understand what came before the reform, I learned Ottoman Turkish and turned to the Arabic-script typefaces of the Ottoman printing press.

When the Republic of Turkey replaced the Arabic script with the Latin alphabet in 1928, Latin letters were nothing new to Istanbul. Since the mid-19th century they had appeared on shop signs, on ferry and tram stations, and in Turkish–French publications. Yet Latin fonts were imported from French and German foundries both before and after the reform, and local foundries only re-cast them from European matrices. Original Latin type design from early 20th-century Turkey remains undocumented. To understand what came before the reform, I learned Ottoman Turkish and turned to the Arabic-script typefaces of the Ottoman printing press.

When the Republic of Turkey replaced the Arabic script with the Latin alphabet in 1928, Latin letters were nothing new to Istanbul. Since the mid-19th century they had appeared on shop signs, on ferry and tram stations, and in Turkish–French publications. Yet Latin fonts were imported from French and German foundries both before and after the reform, and local foundries only re-cast them from European matrices. Original Latin type design from early 20th-century Turkey remains undocumented. To understand what came before the reform, I learned Ottoman Turkish and turned to the Arabic-script typefaces of the Ottoman printing press.

When the Republic of Turkey replaced the Arabic script with the Latin alphabet in 1928, Latin letters were nothing new to Istanbul. Since the mid-19th century they had appeared on shop signs, on ferry and tram stations, and in Turkish–French publications. Yet Latin fonts were imported from French and German foundries both before and after the reform, and local foundries only re-cast them from European matrices. Original Latin type design from early 20th-century Turkey remains undocumented. To understand what came before the reform, I learned Ottoman Turkish and turned to the Arabic-script typefaces of the Ottoman printing press.

Mapping Ottoman naskh typefaces

Mapping Ottoman naskh typefaces

Mapping Ottoman
naskh typefaces

Mapping Ottoman naskh typefaces

Mapping Ottoman naskh typefaces

This work led to my chapter in Arabic Typography: History and Practice (Niggli, 2022), edited by Titus Nemeth, with contributions by Emanuela Conidi and Borna Izadpanah, an introduction by Gerry Leonidas and a foreword by Robert Bringhurst. The chapter presents a genealogy of the nine original naskh typefaces used in Ottoman printing from 1729 to the 1928 script reform. It follows leading type makers such as Boğos Arabyan and Ohannes Mühendisyan, and shows how typefaces made in Istanbul went on to shape printing in Europe and the Middle East.

This work led to my chapter in Arabic Typography: History and Practice (Niggli, 2022), edited by Titus Nemeth, with contributions by Emanuela Conidi and Borna Izadpanah, an introduction by Gerry Leonidas and a foreword by Robert Bringhurst. The chapter presents a genealogy of the nine original naskh typefaces used in Ottoman printing from 1729 to the 1928 script reform. It follows leading type makers such as Boğos Arabyan and Ohannes Mühendisyan, and shows how typefaces made in Istanbul went on to shape printing in Europe and the Middle East.

This work led to my chapter in Arabic Typography: History and Practice (Niggli, 2022), edited by Titus Nemeth, with contributions by Emanuela Conidi and Borna Izadpanah, an introduction by Gerry Leonidas and a foreword by Robert Bringhurst. The chapter presents a genealogy of the nine original naskh typefaces used in Ottoman printing from 1729 to the 1928 script reform. It follows leading type makers such as Boğos Arabyan and Ohannes Mühendisyan, and shows how typefaces made in Istanbul went on to shape printing in Europe and the Middle East.

This work led to my chapter in Arabic Typography: History and Practice (Niggli, 2022), edited by Titus Nemeth, with contributions by Emanuela Conidi and Borna Izadpanah, an introduction by Gerry Leonidas and a foreword by Robert Bringhurst. The chapter presents a genealogy of the nine original naskh typefaces used in Ottoman printing from 1729 to the 1928 script reform. It follows leading type makers such as Boğos Arabyan and Ohannes Mühendisyan, and shows how typefaces made in Istanbul went on to shape printing in Europe and the Middle East.

This work led to my chapter in Arabic Typography: History and Practice (Niggli, 2022), edited by Titus Nemeth, with contributions by Emanuela Conidi and Borna Izadpanah, an introduction by Gerry Leonidas and a foreword by Robert Bringhurst. The chapter presents a genealogy of the nine original naskh typefaces used in Ottoman printing from 1729 to the 1928 script reform. It follows leading type makers such as Boğos Arabyan and Ohannes Mühendisyan, and shows how typefaces made in Istanbul went on to shape printing in Europe and the Middle East.

A closer look: the 8 pt naskh

A closer look: the 8 pt naskh

A closer look: the 8 pt naskh

A closer look: the 8 pt naskh

A closer look: the 8 pt naskh

Nearly all of the nine original naskh typefaces of Ottoman printing were the work of the empire’s non-Muslim subjects, most notably Armenian type makers. During the typographic boom of the 1870s, however, a Turkish type maker made his way into this field: Mehmed Emin Efendi, perhaps the earliest known. His 8 pt naskh is the subject of my article “The Ottoman Printers’ 8 Point Naskh Typeface and its Turkish Type Maker Mehmed Emin Efendi” (Sanat Tarihi Yıllığı – Journal of Art History 31, 2022). Cut in Istanbul between 1870 and 1875, it was the smallest Arabic type used by Ottoman printers and was essential for captions, subtitles and pocket dictionaries. An 1875 court petition names Emin as its maker and shows that he both drew and cut the type himself. No other Ottoman typeface is known to have been made this way. → Read the article

Nearly all of the nine original naskh typefaces of Ottoman printing were the work of the empire’s non-Muslim subjects, most notably Armenian type makers. During the typographic boom of the 1870s, however, a Turkish type maker made his way into this field: Mehmed Emin Efendi, perhaps the earliest known. His 8 pt naskh is the subject of my article “The Ottoman Printers’ 8 Point Naskh Typeface and its Turkish Type Maker Mehmed Emin Efendi” (Sanat Tarihi Yıllığı – Journal of Art History 31, 2022). Cut in Istanbul between 1870 and 1875, it was the smallest Arabic type used by Ottoman printers and was essential for captions, subtitles and pocket dictionaries. An 1875 court petition names Emin as its maker and shows that he both drew and cut the type himself. No other Ottoman typeface is known to have been made this way. → Read the article

Nearly all of the nine original naskh typefaces of Ottoman printing were the work of the empire’s non-Muslim subjects, most notably Armenian type makers. During the typographic boom of the 1870s, however, a Turkish type maker made his way into this field: Mehmed Emin Efendi, perhaps the earliest known. His 8 pt naskh is the subject of my article “The Ottoman Printers’ 8 Point Naskh Typeface and its Turkish Type Maker Mehmed Emin Efendi” (Sanat Tarihi Yıllığı – Journal of Art History 31, 2022). Cut in Istanbul between 1870 and 1875, it was the smallest Arabic type used by Ottoman printers and was essential for captions, subtitles and pocket dictionaries. An 1875 court petition names Emin as its maker and shows that he both drew and cut the type himself. No other Ottoman typeface is known to have been made this way. → Read the article

Nearly all of the nine original naskh typefaces of Ottoman printing were the work of the empire’s non-Muslim subjects, most notably Armenian type makers. During the typographic boom of the 1870s, however, a Turkish type maker made his way into this field: Mehmed Emin Efendi, perhaps the earliest known. His 8 pt naskh is the subject of my article “The Ottoman Printers’ 8 Point Naskh Typeface and its Turkish Type Maker Mehmed Emin Efendi” (Sanat Tarihi Yıllığı – Journal of Art History 31, 2022). Cut in Istanbul between 1870 and 1875, it was the smallest Arabic type used by Ottoman printers and was essential for captions, subtitles and pocket dictionaries. An 1875 court petition names Emin as its maker and shows that he both drew and cut the type himself. No other Ottoman typeface is known to have been made this way. → Read the article

Nearly all of the nine original naskh typefaces of Ottoman printing were the work of the empire’s non-Muslim subjects, most notably Armenian type makers. During the typographic boom of the 1870s, however, a Turkish type maker made his way into this field: Mehmed Emin Efendi, perhaps the earliest known. His 8 pt naskh is the subject of my article “The Ottoman Printers’ 8 Point Naskh Typeface and its Turkish Type Maker Mehmed Emin Efendi” (Sanat Tarihi Yıllığı – Journal of Art History 31, 2022). Cut in Istanbul between 1870 and 1875, it was the smallest Arabic type used by Ottoman printers and was essential for captions, subtitles and pocket dictionaries. An 1875 court petition names Emin as its maker and shows that he both drew and cut the type himself. No other Ottoman typeface is known to have been made this way. → Read the article

The global life of an Istanbul type

The global life of an Istanbul type

The global life of an Istanbul type

The global life of an Istanbul type

The global life of an Istanbul type

With Borna Izadpanah of the University of Reading, I then followed the most celebrated Ottoman naskh type beyond Istanbul. Our article “Crafting Global Typography: Origins, Dissemination, and Adaptation of Naskh Types from Istanbul” (Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 36, no. 3, 2026) tells the story of MI-24. This 24 pt type was cut in 1867 by the Ottoman-Armenian punch-cutter Ohannes Mühendisyan together with the court calligrapher Kazasker Mustafa İzzet Efendi. Drawing on previously unexamined archival sources, the article follows the type from Istanbul to Beirut, Cairo, Tehran and Kabul, and as far as Chicago, London and Oxford. In each place missionaries, Arab intellectuals or European Orientalists adapted it to their own needs. → Read the article (open access)

With Borna Izadpanah of the University of Reading, I then followed the most celebrated Ottoman naskh type beyond Istanbul. Our article “Crafting Global Typography: Origins, Dissemination, and Adaptation of Naskh Types from Istanbul” (Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 36, no. 3, 2026) tells the story of MI-24. This 24 pt type was cut in 1867 by the Ottoman-Armenian punch-cutter Ohannes Mühendisyan together with the court calligrapher Kazasker Mustafa İzzet Efendi. Drawing on previously unexamined archival sources, the article follows the type from Istanbul to Beirut, Cairo, Tehran and Kabul, and as far as Chicago, London and Oxford. In each place missionaries, Arab intellectuals or European Orientalists adapted it to their own needs. → Read the article (open access)

With Borna Izadpanah of the University of Reading, I then followed the most celebrated Ottoman naskh type beyond Istanbul. Our article “Crafting Global Typography: Origins, Dissemination, and Adaptation of Naskh Types from Istanbul” (Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 36, no. 3, 2026) tells the story of MI-24. This 24 pt type was cut in 1867 by the Ottoman-Armenian punch-cutter Ohannes Mühendisyan together with the court calligrapher Kazasker Mustafa İzzet Efendi. Drawing on previously unexamined archival sources, the article follows the type from Istanbul to Beirut, Cairo, Tehran and Kabul, and as far as Chicago, London and Oxford. In each place missionaries, Arab intellectuals or European Orientalists adapted it to their own needs. → Read the article (open access)

With Borna Izadpanah of the University of Reading, I then followed the most celebrated Ottoman naskh type beyond Istanbul. Our article “Crafting Global Typography: Origins, Dissemination, and Adaptation of Naskh Types from Istanbul” (Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 36, no. 3, 2026) tells the story of MI-24. This 24 pt type was cut in 1867 by the Ottoman-Armenian punch-cutter Ohannes Mühendisyan together with the court calligrapher Kazasker Mustafa İzzet Efendi. Drawing on previously unexamined archival sources, the article follows the type from Istanbul to Beirut, Cairo, Tehran and Kabul, and as far as Chicago, London and Oxford. In each place missionaries, Arab intellectuals or European Orientalists adapted it to their own needs. → Read the article (open access)

With Borna Izadpanah of the University of Reading, I then followed the most celebrated Ottoman naskh type beyond Istanbul. Our article “Crafting Global Typography: Origins, Dissemination, and Adaptation of Naskh Types from Istanbul” (Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 36, no. 3, 2026) tells the story of MI-24. This 24 pt type was cut in 1867 by the Ottoman-Armenian punch-cutter Ohannes Mühendisyan together with the court calligrapher Kazasker Mustafa İzzet Efendi. Drawing on previously unexamined archival sources, the article follows the type from Istanbul to Beirut, Cairo, Tehran and Kabul, and as far as Chicago, London and Oxford. In each place missionaries, Arab intellectuals or European Orientalists adapted it to their own needs. → Read the article (open access)

Pergamon: from stone to type

Pergamon: from stone to type

Pergamon: from
stone to type

Pergamon: from stone to type

Pergamon: from stone to type

My sabbatical opened a new line of work in ancient Greek epigraphy. Through weekly visits to the ancient city of Pergamon, near Bergama, I photographed the honorary inscriptions (tituli honorarii) carved in stone some 2,200 years ago. I then revived their letters as a digital typeface. Pergamon is modelled mainly on an inscription in the north stoa of the Asclepieion. Its 40 characters include stylistic alternates and the flower and grape-bunch symbols found on the stones. The process is documented in the bilingual book Pergamon: A Greek Script Typeface Design (YEM Yayın, 2023), which also features jewellery designed with the typeface. The project is meant as a resource for designers working with Greek type and as a study tool for archaeology students.

My sabbatical opened a new line of work in ancient Greek epigraphy. Through weekly visits to the ancient city of Pergamon, near Bergama, I photographed the honorary inscriptions (tituli honorarii) carved in stone some 2,200 years ago. I then revived their letters as a digital typeface. Pergamon is modelled mainly on an inscription in the north stoa of the Asclepieion. Its 40 characters include stylistic alternates and the flower and grape-bunch symbols found on the stones. The process is documented in the bilingual book Pergamon: A Greek Script Typeface Design (YEM Yayın, 2023), which also features jewellery designed with the typeface. The project is meant as a resource for designers working with Greek type and as a study tool for archaeology students.

My sabbatical opened a new line of work in ancient Greek epigraphy. Through weekly visits to the ancient city of Pergamon, near Bergama, I photographed the honorary inscriptions (tituli honorarii) carved in stone some 2,200 years ago. I then revived their letters as a digital typeface. Pergamon is modelled mainly on an inscription in the north stoa of the Asclepieion. Its 40 characters include stylistic alternates and the flower and grape-bunch symbols found on the stones. The process is documented in the bilingual book Pergamon: A Greek Script Typeface Design (YEM Yayın, 2023), which also features jewellery designed with the typeface. The project is meant as a resource for designers working with Greek type and as a study tool for archaeology students.

My sabbatical opened a new line of work in ancient Greek epigraphy. Through weekly visits to the ancient city of Pergamon, near Bergama, I photographed the honorary inscriptions (tituli honorarii) carved in stone some 2,200 years ago. I then revived their letters as a digital typeface. Pergamon is modelled mainly on an inscription in the north stoa of the Asclepieion. Its 40 characters include stylistic alternates and the flower and grape-bunch symbols found on the stones. The process is documented in the bilingual book Pergamon: A Greek Script Typeface Design (YEM Yayın, 2023), which also features jewellery designed with the typeface. The project is meant as a resource for designers working with Greek type and as a study tool for archaeology students.

My sabbatical opened a new line of work in ancient Greek epigraphy. Through weekly visits to the ancient city of Pergamon, near Bergama, I photographed the honorary inscriptions (tituli honorarii) carved in stone some 2,200 years ago. I then revived their letters as a digital typeface. Pergamon is modelled mainly on an inscription in the north stoa of the Asclepieion. Its 40 characters include stylistic alternates and the flower and grape-bunch symbols found on the stones. The process is documented in the bilingual book Pergamon: A Greek Script Typeface Design (YEM Yayın, 2023), which also features jewellery designed with the typeface. The project is meant as a resource for designers working with Greek type and as a study tool for archaeology students.